Continuing with the lessons on fortran, the following stuff were covered today.

Procedures in detail

Intents:

A fortran function’s parameters may have three possible intents

• in
• out
• inout

1
2
3
4
5
6

function one(x) result (y)
	real, intent(inout) :: x(:)
	logical :: y
	x = 1.
	y = .true.
end function one

Note that the result variable doesn’t (and cannot) have intent.

Call by reference:

By default, fortran calls by reference. Hence, if a variable is modified in function, it is reflected in the calling program.

Call by value:

In order to call a parameter by value (that is not to modify orginal variable), the following syntax is followed during declaration inside the procedure.

1

integer, value:: var

Keyword Arguments:

Fortran supports calling procedures with keywords. When done so, the order doesn’t matter (need not be the same order as the function/subroutine declaration).

1

call clamp(min_val=0.0, max_val=1.0, val=x)

Optional Arguments:

Add optional arguments to functions and subroutines.

1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8

call f(x)
call f(x, y)
.
.
subroutine f(x, y)
integer, intent(inout) :: x
integer, intent(in), optional ::y
end subroutine f

Persistent values:

These values are stored and can be retrieved during next function calls.

1

real, save :: per

Pure Procedures:

Compiler generates efficient code when a procedure is declared as pure.

1
2

pure function f(x)
pure subroutine g(x)

To be a pure procedure, the following should be followed.

• All arguments must have intent in or inout (in case of subroutine).
• no persistent (save) variables
• I\O (read, print, write) not allowed.
• stop statement not allowed.
• cannot be recursive.
• if any other procedure is called, that must also be pure.

Recursion:

In Fortran, recursive functions are usually less efficient than iterative counterparts.

 1
 2
 3
 4
 5
 6
 7
 8
 9
10
11

recursive function factorial(n) result(fac)
    implicit none
    integer, intent(in) :: n
    integer :: fac

    if (n >= 2) then
        fac = n*factorial(n - 1)
    else
        fac = 1
    end if
end function factorial

Scope:

Scope is usually limited to the main program or module. So, a variable declared in a program will be accessible to the procedures it contains. However, if the same variable name is declared in a function, that variable will have a local scope within that function.

Modules can be imported (after compiling it first) into another program. It also imports all the corresponding values. Hence, only is preferred to limit what we import.

1

use modulename, only : fn1

Block statements have the scope limited to within that section.

1
2
3
4

block
    integer :: i = 5
    print *, i
end block

Control Flow Statements

Select statement:

It’s similar to switch case of C and is limited to only integer or character values

1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9

select case (integer_or_character)
	case (case1)
		...
	case (case2)
		...
	...
	case default
		...
end select

where statement

It’s similar to logical indexing in python

1

A[A<=0] = 0

In fortran,

1
2
3
4
5
6
7

where (A <= 0)
	A = 0.
elsewhere (A > 1)
	A =1.
elsewhere
	A = 0.5
end where

merge statement

If there are only two cases, merge can be used.

1

A = merge(A>0, true_value, false_value)

Exit and cycle statements

• exit exits the loop it is in
• cycle skips the following codes and go to the next iteration.
• stop stops the entire program

If the loop is labelled, then exit and cycle can specify which loop it has to consider.

1
2
3
4
5
6

outer: do i=1,n
	inner: do, j=1,n
		if (i<j) cycle outer
		if (mod(i,2)== 0) exit inner
	end do inner
end do outer

Forall and do concurrent statements

These statements allow the compiler to optimize the iterations that has to be performed. Hence, the values in each iteration must be independent of previous iteration.

forall is restrictive in the sense that it can only be used for assignment of an array.

1
2
3

forall (i=1:n, j=1:n, ...., i<=j) ! logical expression is optional
	A(i,j) = i+j
end forall

do concurrent is more general in that regard.

1
2
3

do concurrent (i=1:N, j=i:N)
    A(i, j) = f(i, j)
end do

Here is one cool way to develop a band matrix with a width of 3.

 1
 2
 3
 4
 5
 6
 7
 8
 9
10

program band
        integer, dimension(9, 9) :: data = 0
        integer :: i, j
        forall (i = size(data, 1):1:-1, j = -1:1, i+j<=size(data,1) .and. i+j>0)
            data(i, i + j) = 1
        end forall
        do i=1,size(data,1)
                print '(*(i3))', data(i,:)
        end do
end program band

That’s it, for now!